Advanced Botany

  DNA isolation is an essential technique in molecular biology. Isolation of high-molecular weight DNA has become very important with the increasing demand for DNA fingerprinting, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), construction of genomic or sequencing libraries and PCR analysis in research laboratories and industry. DNA isolation is the first step in the study of specific DNA sequences within a complex DNA population, and in the analysis of genome structure and gene expression. The quantity, quality and integrity of DNA will directly affect these results. DNA constitutes a small percentage of the cell material and is usually localized in a defined part of the cell. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is localized in the nucleoid that is not separated from the rest of the cell sap by a membrane. In eukaryotic cells, the bulk of DNA is localized in the nucleus, an organelle that is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. The nucleus contains about 90% of the total cellular D...

  Cooking oil is a plant, animal or synthetic liquid fat used in cooking, frying and also in food preparation and flavoring. It is one of the key items in our kitchen and plays a crucial role in the body. There are wide varieties of cooking oils such as olive oil, soybean oil, corn oil, canola oil, peanut oil etc. from plant sources and butter and lard are examples of animal-based oils.  Fats are hydrocarbon molecules and formed through replacement of the hydrogen of each hydroxyl group by a fatty acid. As three chains of fatty acids can be attached to each glycerol molecule, the resulting molecule is called a triglyceride (fat). Fats may be monounsaturated (MUFAs), polyunsaturated (PUFAs), saturated or trans based on their fatty acid composition. Saturated and Unsaturated fatty acids In saturated fatty acids, the carbon chain has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached to every carbon atom. If a pair of hydrogen atoms is missing because of a double bo...

  Light is made up of electromagnetic particles that travel in waves.  These waves emit energy, and range in length and strength. The length of the waves is measured in nanometers (nm).  Every wavelength is represented by a different color, and is grouped into the following categories: gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet (UV) rays, visible light, infrared light, and radio waves.  Together these wavelengths make up the electromagnetic spectrum. However, the human eye is sensitive to visible light only. Visible light is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is seen as colors: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.  Blue light has a very short wavelength, and so produces a higher amount of energy. Blue light affects many aspects of plant growth and development. Plant blue-light responses include inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, stimulation of cotyledon expansion, regulation of flowering time, phototropic curvature,...

  Photophosphorylation is the conversion of ADP to ATP using the energy of sunlight by activation of PSII. This involves the splitting of the water molecule in oxygen and hydrogen protons (H + ), a process known as photolysis. Subsequently, a continuous unidirectional flow of electron from water to PSI is performed. Electrons move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain, and ATP is made by the action of the enzyme ATP synthase. An electron transport chain consists of a series of redox reactions which sequentially proceed to transfer electrons from a high-energy molecule (the donor) to a lower energy molecule (the acceptor). During the function of the electron transport chain, a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient is produced by the flow of protons from the stroma to the thylakoid space and this proton gradient is established as the power for ATP synthase activity and thus ATP is produced by phosphorylation. Photophosphorylation i...

  Plants and insects have both benefited and harmed one another through the ages. Plants provide sweet nectar as food to insects, in exchange for, insects carry pollen caught on their bodies to other plants.  This aids their benefactor plants in the reproduction process. Contrastingly, harm may come to the plant as insects prey on the plant for food and plants can be defoliated in short order by these feeding insects. In order to protect themselves from harmful insects plants produce a variety of noxious phytochemicals. Phenolic glucosides are one of the defensive secondary metabolites produced by plants for this purpose. The whitefly named Bemisia tabaci , one of the most devastating crop pests is a cosmopolitan, highly polyphagous and can seriously reduce crop yields by feeding on phloem, transmitting plant viruses, and excreting honeydew. Phenolic glucosides are toxic phytochemicals strongly affect growth, development, and behavior of whitefly ( Bemisia tabaci )...

  Tree nuts are rich source of health-enhancing bioactive compounds and considered as an important food in healthy diet. Almonds ( Prunus dulcis ) are among the world’s most popular tree nuts belong to Rosaceae family, a medium-sized family of flowering plants that includes 4,828 known species in 91 genera. Almonds are a high energy snack containing 50-55% fat, 90% of which is unsaturated oleic or linoleic acid. Further, almonds contain no cholesterol or sodium and are an abundant source of magnesium, phosphorus, and copper. They are generally consumed raw, toasted or as an integral part of other foods. Regular consumption of almonds has been associated with reduced risk of chronic-degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. They are highly nutritious and rich in healthy fats, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals. Almonds are also an excellent source of melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate the sleeping and waking...

  Vitamin D is one of the fat-soluble vitamins structurally derived from cholesterol. It is essential for maintaining healthy bones and teeth and also has several other important functions in the body such as regulating the absorption of calcium and phosphorus and facilitating normal immune function. It exists in five active forms: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3(1,25-(OH)2D3,  24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3(24R,25-(OH)2D3, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D2(1,25-(OH2)D), 25-hydroxyvitamin D3(25-OH-D3) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D2(25-OH-D2). According to a study, vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] < 50 nmol/L or 20 ng/ml) is associated with fractures and bone loss. Severe vitamin D deficiency with a 25(OH)D concentration below <30 nmol/L (or 12 ng/ml) increases the risk of excess mortality, infections, and many other diseases. Poor vitamin D status is a global health problem. Approximately one billion people worldwide suffer from vitamin D...